Toileting 3. This skill could be assessed by giving the individual a local phone directory, asking them to look up a number, and observing the results, yielding a measure of whether the individual can demonstrate this skill. Adaptive behavior is defined as the set of skills that individuals should be able to perform at a certain age. PDF. One important protection against inappropriate adaptive behavior decisions, which is due to respondents intentionally reporting invalidly low adaptive behavior performance, is consideration by the examiner of further information about everyday performance of social roles and related activities that are consistent with presence of adaptive limitations.
Validity can be categorized in terms of: (1) content validity (evidence of content relevance, representativeness, and technical quality); (2) substantive validity (theoretical rationale); (3) structural validity (the fidelity of the scoring structure); (4) generalization validity (generalization to the population and across populations); (5) external validity (applications to multitrait-multimethod comparison); and (6) consequential validity (bias, fairness, and justice; the social consequence of the assessment to the societyMessick, 1995). Reliability is good. Can the person anticipate the consequences of carrying out different strategies for resolving particular social problems in a given social context. These messages, known as social cues, consist of verbal and nonverbal stimuli, such as physical actions, words, facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language, which tell about others' behaviors, feelings, and intentions. If an appropriate respondent is not available, use of the instrument in some other way (e.g., self-report, unless a self-report version of the protocol is available) violates basic standardization procedures, rendering normative comparisons invalid. His work emphasized social inadequacy due to low intelligence that was developmentally arrested as a cardinal indication of mental retardation (Doll, 1936a, p. 35). Interestingly, individuals with mild mental retardation often face their most significant obstacles to competitive employment and job retention arising not from task-related skills, but rather from limitations in their social functioning (Bullis & Foss, 1986; Butterworth & Strauch, 1994; Chadsey-Rusch, 1992; Foss & Bostwick, 1981; Greenspan & Shoultz, 1981; Salzberg et al., 1988; Salzberg, Likins et al., 1986). self-care, home living, social skills, self-direction, health and safety, etc.). Research with children and adolescents with mental retardation has found that they also have difficulty integrating information from multiple cues in order to interpret a social situation (Brosgole et al., 1986; Doman, 1967; Gomez & Hazeldine, 1996; Leffert & Siperstein, 1996; Leffert et al., 2000; Maheady et al., 1984). This allows the rater to obtain a complete picture of the adaptive functioning of the person being assessed. The Vineland-3 is a standardized measure of adaptive behavior--the things that people do to function in their . For the Scales of Independent Behavior-R (Bruininks et al., 1996), the norming sample included 2,182 people ages 3 years 11 months to 90 years, with a sampling frame based on the general population of the United States stratified for gender, race, Hispanic origin, occupational status, occupational level, geographic region, and community size. Lowe and his colleagues (2007) categorized problem behavior into four broad groupings including self-injurious behavior, aggression toward persons, destruction of objects, and disruptive behavior. Data from reliability and validity studies of the survey form are very impressive, especially in light of the flexible conversational procedures used for obtaining information. SSA guidelines further clarify the intent and nature of activities of daily living and social functioning for adults, and personal functioning for younger and older children, closely paraphrased below: The overall correspondence of several adaptive behavior measures to the content within the functional areas that are considered in ascertaining marked limitations is shown in Table 4-2. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), published by the American Psychiatric Association (1994), definition of mental retardation also has a cutoff of two standard deviations below the mean for intelligence, making an IQ cutoff of 70 to 75 acceptable for a diagnosis of mental retardation. Also, current measures also evidence strong validity, as described in the chapter. Indeed, by the late 1970s, the number of available adaptive behavior measures, largely interview or observational in format, had burgeoned, including checklists pertaining to vocational behaviors (Walls & Werner, 1977). Referring to the dual purpose of adaptive behavior scales, Spreat (1999) concluded that it is unrealistic to think that the same test can be used for program evaluation, diagnosis, classification, and individual programming (p. 106). Principal Comprehensive Adaptive Behavior Measures and Their Characteristics. Other scales permit someone to help the person answer questions that cannot be answered without assistance. Under ideal circumstances, adaptive behavior measures should be administered in an examinee's or informant's primary language. Newer adaptive behavior scales evidence more robust psychometric properties than older scales. The definitions also vary as to whether they consider adaptive behavior to be made up of a single factor or to have multiple factors or domains.
In balancing these factors, item density, that is, the inclusion of multiple items reflecting age-typical performance at a range of ages, must be maintained at a fairly uniform level. Adaptive behavior scales were not among the types of measures (or named measures) that respondents identified as important for the training of future practitioners. (1999), Jacobson and Mulick (1996), Spector (1999), Hill (1999), Test Critiques, test reviews in the Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, and the Mental Measurements Yearbooks for more detailed psychometric information about these and other measures. Interview methods recommended for different measures vary from high to low structure. In addition to rating skill performance, raters also specify whether each skill is critical to success in the environment in which the child is observed, i.e., school or classroom. The Independent Living Scales (ILSLoeb, 1996) were designed to assess the degree to which older adults are capable of caring for themselves (i.e., functional competence). It is an important tool in eligibility consideration for students with mental handicaps and in the continual development of effective educational interventions. Through the assessment of strategy generation, researchers have been able to evaluate an individual's fund of social knowledge (i.e., his or her repertoire of social strategies), as well as the ability to adapt to varied social situations by generating situationally appropriate strategies. (1979) concluded from their review of factor analytic studies that adaptive behavior was definitely multidimensional and that the use of a total score would be inappropriate to indicate a general level of adaptation. It also determines strengths and weaknesses, documents progress, and assesses the effects of intervention programs. Consider using a formal rating scale (for example, the Aberrant Behavior Checklist or Adaptive Behavior Scale) to provide baseline levels for the behaviour and a scale (such as the Functional Analysis Screening Tool) to help understand its function. Adaptive Functioning Adaptive functioning is affected by three basic skill sets: Conceptual This includes reading, numbers, money, time, and communication skills. These concerns are heightened when informants have a stake in the outcome of the assessment (e.g., when responses may affect eligibility for services). . The report notes that several studies have found that bilingual patients are evaluated differently when interviewed in English as opposed to Spanish. It is also possible that different subcultural expectations about independence or religious or medical causes for certain behaviors may affect the validity of reports. Making a phone (or video) call is an example of adaptive behavior that changed over time. Food handling 7. With regard to the direct assessment of processes, the overarching construct of social cognition has been put forth by developmentalists over the past four decades (e.g., Crick & Dodge, 1994; Dodge, 1986; McFall, 1982; Trower, 1982). The other consists of a person who also knows the individual being assessed well but who independently completes a checklist of specific items without assistance. Social These skills help us to get along well with others. Social Skills Dimension of Social Competence. The initial, and probably primary, application of adaptive behavior scales in clinical practice has been to assess the behavioral development of children thought to have mental retardation. Because Florida is a large and populous state with a culturally diverse population, it is likely that results can be generalized to the national population. Adaptive behavior has been an integral, although sometimes unstated, part of the long history of mental retardation and its definition. Such scales sample behaviors that are typically achieved at a range of ages and can indicate strengths and weaknesses in the ability to adapt. A landscape filled with wildebeest will give easy pickings for large animals. Response options such as never, sometimes, and always or Likert-type response formats using a five- or seven-point continuum with anchor statements like very good, good, acceptable, poor, and very poor are open to a variety of response sets. For example, assessments are used during classroom instruction to measure students' learning related to the academic content, and different assessments are used to measure students' overall cognitive, physical, or social . The proportion of children from homes with low socioeconomic status was lower than that in the census data. Adaptive Behavior
Their repertoires often exclude certain types of socially adaptive strategies. The Adaptive Behavior Inventory (ABIBrown & Leigh, 1986) was designed to reflect the ability of school-age youngsters to meet age-appropriate socio-cultural expectations for personal responsibility (Smith, 1989). The skills needed to make a call today are very different from the skills that were required 20 years ago. assessment of Jane's adaptive behavior. 7-8). This usually entails behavioral patterns that are dysfunctional to the individual.
Very recently Greenspan (1999) proposed ideas for assessing vulnerability in a comprehensive assessment of adaptive behavior or social competence. They can contribute to accurate and appropriate clinical diagnosis of concurrent conditions that may meet listing requirements for SSI and DI as an alternative to assessment of adaptive behavior. This is usually a parent or teacher. Adaptive performance is often a trade-off with other traits such as patience. Additional discussion is provided in Chapter 3. Measures used in schools may not need a work domain, for example, if students are too young for employment or the school does not have a work experience program. However, a maladaptive behavior is quite different from adaptive behavior. What is an adaptive score? Here are some of the behavior assessments that are commonly used. Because adaptive behavior scales are targeted either specifically at children and adolescents or at groups ranging from children to young adults, there is a strong developmental component to their structures (Widaman et al., 1987). Adams (2000), in contrast, uses a mixture of typical performance with third-party respondents and maximum performance operations. ASEBA behavior rating scales include the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), the Caregiver-Teacher Report Form (C-TRF), the Teacher Report Form (TRF), the Youth Self-Report (YSR), the Adult Behavior Checklist (ABCL), the Adult Self-Report (ASR), the Older Adult Behavior Checklist (OABCL), and the Older Adult Self-Report (OASR). Such concerns arise in part because intellectual performance, the other criterion associated with mental retardation, is measured by comprehensive intelligence tests that are the most thoroughly researched forms of psychological assessment (Neisser et al., 1996). Adaptive behavior is generally not a mental health issue, since the focus is on developing positive behaviors, rather than deficits. One may think of adaptive behavior as a constellation of skills that allow a person to function effectively every day at home, school, work, and in the community. In fact, as noted above, in the construction of adaptive behavior scales, such oversampling is typically avoided. The three most common dimensions found were in these broad categories: (1) personal independence, (2) responsibility, i.e., meeting expectations of others or getting along with others in social contexts, and (3) cognitive/academic. Chapter 4, The Role of Adaptive Behavior Assessment, Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. The Social Skills Rating System, described below, is a behavior rating scale that was developed to provide this information for students. Our review of the practice literature reveals that adaptive behavior scales are in wide use by some groups of clinicians. However, because several adaptive behavior scales contain maladaptive components, it is worth noting important challenges to reliable measurement. The person is then asked, What will happen after the protagonist carries out this strategy? For example, some instruments permit more than one respondent to answer different items, depending on which respondent is most knowledgeable about the behavior (Adams, 2000). Because the sample for mild mental retardation shown in Table 4-3 was drawn from a school-age sample, some members of the group may have had IQs above 70 (i.e., less than 2 SDs below the mean). Auty and colleagues (1987) have found positive correlations between subtest scores on the TICE and supervisor-rated work skills, self-reported job satisfaction, and worker productivity among adults with mild mental retardation. Adaptive Behavior Assessment Examples. The advantage of the method is that it frees the clinician from using a set of criteria that may be perceived as restrictive. Because standard scores and percentile ranks do not indicate standing relative to people without developmental disabilities, and because the norming sample is probably not representative of the population of adults with developmental disabilities, the ABS-RC:2 may not fit the psychometric criteria used in determining a diagnosis of mental retardation according to AAMR requirements (American Association on Mental Retardation, 1992). Clinicians may consequently believe adaptive behavior to be less well understood than intelligence.
Division 33 makes it clear that the presence of clinically significant maladaptive behavior does not meet the criterion of significant limitations in adaptive functioning (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996). To the extent that low income or very low income is more common among certain ethnic minority groups, however, differences in developmental trajectories for children may reflect differences in childrearing practices and stimulation that are associated with economic and social class and related levels of parental education (Hart, 2000; Hart & Risley, 1992; Walker et al., 1994). Some scales can be administered either way.
Some organizations are too rigid for adaptive performers such that they are likely to leave. (1991) found that two adaptive behavior scales ranked 20th and 21st among 29 specific psychological assessment measures used by psychologists serving adolescents, and they were used frequently by fewer than 10 percent of practitioners. Readers are referred to the test manuals and to Reschly (1990), Harrison and Robinson (1995), Thompson et al. The purpose of doing a behavioral assessment is to understand and to explain how behavior can affect a child or an individual depending on the environment. Thompson et al. Finally, the difficulties and complexities of differentiating mild mental retardation from its absence or from other disabling conditions (e.g., Gresham et al., 1995; MacMillan, Gresham, et al., 1996; MacMillan, Siperstein, & Gresham, 1996) have remained an enduring concern in both professional practice and policy formulation. Following school rules 8. On one instrument, the items are shown to the respondent and the respondent is given responses from which to choose (e.g., Bruininks et al., 1996), while in another the interviewer is required to assess adaptive competencies through a general conversation with prompts such as Tell me about Thomasina's language skills (Sparrow et al., 1984a). Individuals with mental retardation often demonstrate difficulties at the most basic level of recognizing specific types of social cues (e.g., recognizing a person's emotional state on the basis of his or her facial expression) (Adams & Markham, 1991; Gumpel & Wilson, 1996; Harris, 1977; Hobson et al., 1989). Several studies have shown significant and meaningful correlations between the BDI and other measures of cognitive, adaptive, language, and social functioning, with samples of children with and without disabilities (Bailey et al., 1998). Adaptive behavior assessments are often used in preschool and special education programs for determining eligibility, for program planning, and for assessing outcomes. It includes activities such as walking, talking, eating, socializing and grocery shopping. A consequence of this, according to Thompson et al., is the inability to develop precise measures of adaptive behavior that would objectively differentiate individuals by disability. They have provided valuable information that has informed decision making about interventions to improve the social functioning of individuals with mental retardation. The distinction between maximum performance and typical performance assessments might be illustrated with some common adaptive behavior items. Nonetheless, it should always be recognized that items in adaptive behavior measures represent a sampling of items that have passed reliability and validity screens, rather than a complete characterization of adaptive behavior. Greenspan (1999) also has argued for many years that the presence of maladaptive behavior, or mental illness, is irrelevant for the purpose of diagnosing of mental retardation.
There are vast differences in how the third-party respondent reports on the adaptive behaviors of a client, particularly in the structure for the interview. Although normed on smaller samples than comprehensive intelligence tests use, current adaptive behavior measures typically have adequate norming samples in relation to both representation of people with and without mental retardation and representation of age groups in the population in relation to the age span of the measure. Use of 3 to 5 group factor scores, appropriate with the SIB, the VABS, and some other instruments, would not be appropriate with the ABAS. At the turn of the century, intelligence assessment placed primary emphasis on moral behavior (which largely comports with the current construct of social competence) and on the pragmatics of basic academics. Adaptive behavior.
The Scales of Independent Behavior (SIB-RBruininks et al., 1984) is a component of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. Grooming 2. Physical/developmental and vocational/community dimensions were found less often. The VABS is available in interview, parent/caregiver rating scale, and teacher rating scale forms, with the former two being applicable for adults up to 90 years of age. This use may result from concerns among clinicians about the robustness of adaptive behavior measures. Stinnett (1997) matched ABS items to the 10 adaptive skill areas in the AAMR definition and found that some skill areas are addressed in depth by the ABS (social skills and self-care domains), while others have too few items to give reliable estimates (home living, health and safety, leisure). Professionals call this life skills social competence, or adaptive behavioral functioning. The Batelle Developmental Inventory (BDINewborg et al., 1984) is a developmental scale, rather than an adaptive behavior scale, and is appropriate for children from birth to age 8 (Spector, 1999). Many adaptive behavior scales contain assessments of problem or maladaptive behavior, but relationships between domains of adaptive and maladaptive behavior are generally low, with correlations tending to be below .25 (and a tendency to be higher in samples of persons with severe or profound retardationHarrison, 1987). For example, one needs to distinguish between an individual's deficit in a specific adaptive behavior skill, as opposed to a deficit in a larger domain. In this fashion, the assessment of social-cognitive processes can become part of a more comprehensive approach to individual assessment that includes information from informants about day-to-day behavior, as well as direct assessment of skills of a social-cognitive nature. The Comprehensive Test of Adaptive Behavior (CTABAdams & Hartleben, 1984) has been described as fairly efficient and inexpensive, with excellent reliability, solid validity, and adequate norms (Reschly, 1990). Many of the parents of children suspected of meeting criteria for mild mental retardation may themselves experience cognitive difficulties and are relatively nonverbal (Ramey et al., 1996), making semi- or unstructured interviews much more difficult to conduct in a standardized manner. Student assessment results from formal, standardized assessment tools are often statistically based and can be very difficult for families to understand. Adaptive behaviors include real-life skills such as grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, safe food handling, following school rules, managing money, cleaning, and making friends. Still another way to extend respondent usefulness has been to permit guessing on items involving behaviors that have not been observed (e.g., Harrison, 1984; Harrison & Oakland, 2000a). Best-practice guidelines require that clinicians using adaptive behavior measures employ those that are culturally compatible and have suitably contemporary and age-related norms. In this definition, the order of the constructs can be switched without affecting the validity of the definition. Current measures evidence acceptable interrater and test-retest reliability, with consistency scores at levels of .90 and above (seldom at a level below .80) for clinical and normative subgroups, partitioned by age and clinical variables.
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Does the person recognize that a social problem has occurred? Several important conclusions are suggested by this comparison, although the specifics might differ if another adaptive behavior scale with a somewhat different structure were used: One-half of children with mild mental retardation (column 2) had a summary score falling in the marked limitation range ( 2 SDs), compared with about 14 percent of children without mental retardation (column 3). Jane obtained a GAC score of 72.
This chapter contains material drawn from an unpublished paper commissioned by the committee from Sharon Borthwick-Duffy, Ph.D., University of California, Riverside. This refinement was based on large samples of research participants and data from service registries (McGrew & Bruininks, 1990; Siperstein & Leffert, 1997; Widaman et al., 1987, 1993). A high level of training is necessary in order to capture and distinguish the level, quality, and pattern of adaptive behavior displayed by a given subject, as viewed by the eyes of the respondent (parent, teacher, or caregiver). In addition to the usual considerations attendant on any measure of individuals, special considerations always exist with typical performance measures (Cronbach, 1990).